CLIMATIC CHANGE AND IT’S IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURE

CLIMATIC CHANGE AND IT'S IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURE

Parveen Gulia

Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a global scale. Global warming is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including temperature, precipitation and glacial run-off. These conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human population and domesticated animals. Rising carbon dioxide levels would also have effects, both detrimental and beneficial, on crop yields. The overall effect of climate change on agriculture will depend on the balance of these effects. Assessment of the effects of global climate changes on agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize agricultural production.

At the same time, agriculture has been shown to produce significant effects on climate change, primarily through the production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, but also by altering the earth's land cover, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to radiative forcing. Land use change such as deforestation and desertification, together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide; agriculture itself is the major contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxide concentrations in earth's atmosphere.

Despite technological advances, such as improved varieties, genetically modified organisms, and irrigation systems, weather is still a key factor in agricultural productivity, as well as soil properties and natural communities. The effect of climate on agriculture is related to variabilities in local climates rather than in global climate patterns. The earth's average surface temperature has increased by 1 * F in just over the last century.

A study published in Science magazine suggest that, due to climate change, "southern Africa could lose more than 30% of its main crop, maize, by 2030. In South Asia losses of many regional staples, such as rice, millet and maize could top 10%".

The 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report concluded that the poorest countries would be hardest hit, with reductions in crop yields in most tropical and sub-tropical regions due to decreased water availability, and new or changed insect pest incidence. In Africa and Latin America many rainfed crops are near their maximum temperature tolerance, so that yields are likely to fall sharply for even small climate changes; falls in agricultural productivity of up to 30% over the 21st century are projected.

Climate change induced by increasing greenhouse gases is likely to affect crops differently from region to region. For example, average crop yield is expected to drop down to 50% in Pakistan according to the UKMO scenario whereas corn production in Europe is expected to grow up to 25% in optimum hydrologic conditions.

More favourable effects on yield tend to depend to a large extent on realization of the potentially beneficial effects of carbon dioxide on crop growth and increase of efficiency in water use. Decrease in potential yields is likely to be caused by shortening of the growing period, decrease in water availability and poor vernalization.

Climatic Change and Its Impact on Grain Production

Between 1996 and 2003, grain production has stabilized slightly over 1800 millions of tons. In 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003, grain stocks have been dropping, resulting in a global grain harvest that was short of consumption by 93 millions of tons in 2003.

The earth's average temperature has been rising since the late 1970s, with nine of the 10 warmest years on record occurring since 1995. In 2002, India and the United States suffered sharp harvest reductions because of record temperatures and drought. In 2003 Europe suffered very low rainfall throughout spring and summer, and a record level of heat damaged most crops from the United Kingdom and France in the Western Europe through Ukraine in the East. Bread prices have been rising in several countries in the region.

Climate Change and Its Impact on Pests, Diseases and Weeds

A very important point to consider is that weeds would undergo the same acceleration of cycle as cultivated crops, and would also benefit from carbonaceous fertilization. Since most weeds are C3 plants, they are likely to compete even more than now against C4 crops such as tomatoes. However, on the other hand, some results make it possible to think that weed killers could gain in effectiveness with the temperature increase.

Global warming would cause an increase in rainfall in some areas, which would lead to an increase of atmospheric humidity and the duration of the wet seasons. Combined with higher temperatures, these could favour the development of fungal diseases. Similarly, because of higher temperatures and humidity, there could be an increased pressure from insects and disease vectors.

Climate Change and Irrigation

Due to climatic changes the glaciers are shrinking with very fast rate and it emerge the irrigation crisis in the agriculture. According to a UN climate report, the Himalayan glaciers that are the principal dry-season water sources of Asia's biggest rivers - Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween and Yellow - could disappear by 2035 as temperatures rise. Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan Rivers. India, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by severe droughts in coming decades. In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people. The west coast of North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.

Effect on Scheduled Planting and Harvesting

Duration of crop growth cycles are related to temperature. An increase in temperature will speed up development. In the case of an annual crop, the duration between sowing and harvesting will shorter. The shortening of such a cycle could have an adverse effect on productivity because senescence would occur sooner.

Effect on Fertility of Soil

Soil fertility would probably be affected by climate change. However, because the ratio of carbon to nitrogen is a constant, a doubling of carbon is likely to imply a higher storage of nitrogen in soils as nitrates, thus providing higher fertilizing elements for plants, providing better yields. The average needs for nitrogen could decrease, and give the opportunity of changing often costly fertilisation strategies.

Thus there are negative impacts of climate changes on agriculture and it's necessary to reduce the climatic changes for the sake of earth.

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Parveen Gulia
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Are CFL safe

ARE CFLS SAFE?[1]

Compact Fluorescent Lights (CFLs) is being projected as the panacea of all lighting needs of the nation which will control if not bring down the whopping demand for energy, which in India is mostly met from greenhouse gas-producing thermal power plants. But there is a poisonous side to this harbinger of good tidings that is being swept under the proverbial carpet, durries perhaps, in the Indian context. 

Ban the century-old 'Edisonion' incandescent light bulbs to help reduce global warming is a powerful thought. Smashing the light bulb that produces more heat than light, energy inefficient as a lighting device, is perhaps the right choice. And if replacing it with CFLs that produce the same light using less energy makes you feel that you have done your bit for cooling the earth, then by all means go ahead!  CFLs , made like florescent tubes, produce four times more light than traditional bulbs. Hence a 15-19 wattage CFL produces as much light as a 60 watt bulb. Much of the western fraternity has progressed down the route already. But with the positives comes a few negatives too and cleaning the air doesn't necessarily justify poisoning the soil.

The issues

Point 1:

 Left unsaid is that each CFL contains 4 to 10 milligrams of mercury, a deadly neurotoxin. When a CFL breaks or are discarded it releases mercury into the air. Every product containing mercury should be handled with care. Exposure to mercury, can affect our brain, spinal cord, kidneys and liver, causing symptoms such as trembling hands, memory loss, and difficulty in movement. Even 1 gm of mercury is enough to contaminate a lake and make its fish unfit for eating. Compounds like methyl mercury are the deadliest poisons known to life, which travel globally and get deposited in our food chain. Mercury passes the placental and blood-brain barrier, passing on from mother to child and can cause overall reductions in IQ of exposed populations. Though exposure from a single CFL may not cause any perceptible individual harm, in numbers they can be deadly, especially to pregnant mothers and children.

Point 2:

 According to the US Environment Protection Agency replacing an incandescent bulb with a CFL will reduce the amount of mercury released into the environment (from thermal power stations) from 13.6 mg to 8.3 mg over the lifetime of the CFL. The question then arises about the lifetime of a CFL. As consumers are aware, a CFL that promises to last over six months to a year in many cases turn tail much before that. So the lifetime issue remains shrouded in ambiguity.

Point 3:

Experts declare that environmentalists should be aware that CFLs are a kind of tube light with more or less the same components including mercury vapour. The amount of mercury in a standard tube light can vary dramatically, from 3 to 46 mg. If mercury problem wasn't an issue then, it shouldn't be now also. "We need to address every mercury containing product in the country from the ubiquitous thermometer to tube lights and CFLs to stop hazardous pollutants from entering our food chain," says Tanmay Tathagat, Director, Environmental Designs Solutions, working with Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) Govt. of India, on energy efficiency related projects.  However, the inherent question that arises here is the scale of operations. CFL is tethering on the brink of replacing every bulb in the nation. As any random study will point out, bulb usage is way above the lowly tube light - thus replacement ratios will be sky rocketing. If CFLs are to be introduced en masse, it will mean that our current consumption of mercury annually in the lighting sector will multiply by more than ten times. Besides if we had just one kind of tubes to combat before, now we will have unprecedented quantities of discarded CFLs rising to the ranks of deadly pollutants.

Point 4:

 As a buyer knows, CFL outlets are the very same age old electrical stores that do provide a year's guarantee on the product, yet treat you like a leper if you happen to encounter a problem and return to seek a replacement. Almost thirty to fifty percent of times replacements are required

The other side

The US Environmental Protection Agency prepared a fact sheet to respond to concerns about mercury in energy-efficient lighting that uses CFL technology and declared that CFLs are responsible for less mercury than incandescent light bulbs.  In fact they argue that CFLs present an opportunity to prevent mercury from entering air, where it most affects our health. The highest source of mercury in our air comes from burning fossil fuels such as coal, the most common fuel used to produce electricity. A CFL uses 75 percent less energy than an incandescent light bulb and lasts at least 6 times longer. A power plant will emit 10 mg of mercury to produce the electricity to run an incandescent bulb compared to only 2.4 mg of mercury to run a CFL for the same time. They claim that CFLs do not add to the mercury released to the environment while providing significant greenhouse gas emission reductions. On the contrary CFLs over their life-time reduce the overall amount of mercury released into the environment from the production and use of electricity.

Disposing CFLs

The dangers of mercury contamination at end of life of the CFL persist. And with CFL technology still inefficient with large number of replacements, the end of life may be nearer than projected. This would mean a huge disposal problem. "Unfortunately in India tubes are dumped, smashed and left in landfills, releasing mercury into the environment. Also at present there is no norm of CFL disposal instituted in the country," states Tanmay. Thus in the absence of collection and recycling systems, CFLs will sully the air and groundwater. While the technology for safe disposal and recycling are available, the challenge of ensuring that such systems are implemented is enormous in India.

The alternative

Does CFL, then, have an alternative? Experts point towards light emitting diode (LEDs) that hold unlimited promise. They have a 10 to 100 year life as the prototypes claim, which is way longer than CFL and use 40 percent lower energy than CFLs.

"Unfortunately, LEDs are not yet being mass produced and don't produce the amount of light we usually expect from household lamps. Also the current off the shelf fixtures are not consumer friendly," informs Tanmay. India does have several showcased pilot projects where LED has been custom fabricated (like the solar powered LED lantern), but technology needs to be scaled up considerably if LEDs are to become a household name. The progress continues, but we still are years away from getting something on store shelves that will adequately replace the CFL. "Besides," points out Tanmay, "subsidies for CFL are in place, but LED's are yet to find its place in the sun."

White light LEDs that are sufficiently cheap, pleasing, and efficient is almost there, but more often than not they are used for spotlight applications. To replace the light bulb, LEDs need to have the ability to distribute light in the same manner which it does not have at present. While the lumens/watt in a LED are increasing at a dramatic rate, the lighting fixtures are not. In fact companies are selling LED bulb's but they are not nearly as bright as CFLs and cost much more. LED light bulbs have their place in decorative lighting applications but cannot at present replace CFLs. "Some ten years will have gone before we can use LED lighting in homes," adds Tanmay conclusively.

Seeking solutions

If CFLs are here to stay then we may propose a few steps that can perhaps contribute to a safe and better world that the fluorescent tubes and bulbs advocate.

Factory orientation:  Most of the CFLs used in households provide less lighting than the promised wattage. It also turns dark at the edges, malfunctions and requires replacement. Enforcement agencies such as BEE needs to star label the products of different lighting companies and put them under strict norms that would ensure a reduction in replacement ratios as well as effectively deal with complaints of low wattage and lighting inefficiency over a well defined timeline.

Consumer orientation: Enforcing authorities like BEE can act as facilitators between the hapless purchaser and the CFL dispensing shops. At best it could eliminate the intermediaries and create kiosks in all market centres which are flashpoint company outlets - with purchase, replacement within guarantee period and disposal, all integrated within the same model. "The companies can function in the same way as private telecom systems function in the country," suggests Dr. D Sharma, a CFL user.

Disposal backup: Implementing agencies can put in place systems for take back and safe disposal practices by the manufacturers (also known as Extended Producer Responsibility). All manufacturers should be required to phase out hazardous substances in their CFLs as soon as environmentally sustainable alternatives are available (mandatory substitution), establish take back schemes and ensure effective recycling of CFLs.

To ensure that the consumer does not destroy the used CFL, monetary support may be provided, that may be handed over the counter in terms of buy back scheme (where the rag picker and poorer sections will benefit and at the same time clean up landfills) or extend offers on newer purchases where the buyer avails a certain discount if he brings back a CFL for recycling.

End note

The concern cannot be trivialised, since countries now promoting CFLs have strict collection and recycling laws for discarded lamps. While climate change is very serious business, we must consider all aspects when we take action for its mitigation and not produce 'bad', when trying to do well. The point is that CFL is no magic solution and must not be presented as such. It is thus most important that everyone is aware of the choices before them before being asked to switch to another system.

Recommendations towards CFL awareness

·         With energy efficiency statistic of CFL usage, number of CFL units and the amount of mercury in circulation should also be made available.

·         There is need for an Indian spreadsheet based on US Environmental Protection Agency to relieve concerns, incase of CFL breakage. The US Environmental Protection Agency urges consumers to get rid of dead CFLs, and clean up materials from a breakage, responsibly, but we are not directed about how to dispose CFL safely in India.

·         Although CFL bulbs are categorised as household hazardous waste, our consumers cannot consult mercury details before purchasing a CFL as the price governs most preferences - besides the details are not written on the packs

·         Enforcement agencies such as BEE needs to star label the products of different lighting companies and put them under strict norms that would ensure a reduction in replacement ratios as well as effectively deal with complaints of low wattage and lighting inefficiency over a well defined timeline.

·         No well meaning interventions towards CFL usage in India include any provision for dealing with the manufacturer directly, imposing a recovery and recycling of the products they promote.

·         At least mandatory consumer awareness on the lines of 'Tobacco is injurious to health' on every pack containing a CFL, (also a manual with picture stories on do's and don'ts about CFL usage and disposal) should be placed with immediate action.

·         Local electrical shops stock broken CFL parts. Potentially hazardous the electricians are unaware of the ramifications and hoard them in the hope of creating an indigenous, free of cost CFL. Such hazards need to be highlighted and eliminated for health reasons.

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[1] www.geographyandyou.com

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with regards
Parveen Gulia
M.Tech (Infrastructure Planning)
Cont. No.- 09256015406

DEVELOPMENT AND DECAY HARYANA REMAINS SOCIALLY BACKWARD

DEVELOPMENT AND DECAY 
HARYANA REMAINS SOCIALLY BACKWARD  

            HARYANA is a classic example of a paradox of economic development and political decay. One of the small states of the Indian Union, both in terms of area and population, Haryana has made remarkable economic development.

            It was a backward region of the composite state of Punjab. So much so that the Akali Dal had demanded in its memorandum on Punjabi Suba, submitted to the States Reorganisation Commission,(1953), that the deficit region of Haryana, which was a burden on Punjab should be separated from it and joined with the western UP as it had social and culture affinity with the latter.

            But now Haryana is one of the most developed states of the Indian Union. It is next only to Goa in per capita income. It has surpassed Punjab in agriculture, dairy farming and the service sector. The state has also made phenomenal strides in industrial development. It has also been able to acquire a very high position in the field of information technology. The state has also attracted large-scale investment from domestic and foreign corporate houses.

            In other words, it can be legitimately proud of its impressive record in the field of economic development. Although, this unparalleled success has been made possible to a great extent owing to its strategic location in the National Capital Region.

            Credit must also be given to its dynamic political leadership and efficient bureaucracy who created the needed conditions by developing infrastructure, providing stability and ensuring law and order in the state.

            But if the economic side of Haryana is bright, the political side is bleak. Soon after its creation, the state witnessed the activation of the dormant forces of caste on account of the struggle for power between various political actors.

            This was followed by the politics of defections and counter-defections after the 1967 elections to the Haryana Assembly. The post-1968 mid-term election period was marked with personalisation and centralisation of power, the rise of authoritarian trends and a decline of the institutions of Public Service Commission, Subordinate Service Selection Board and Legislative Assembly.

            Besides, it also witnessed the emergence of an executive-centric political system in which political power got concentrated in the hands of the Chief Minister, members of his family and the Chief Minister's secretariat.

            The post-1977 period witnessed the commanding heights of factional acrobatics, political opportunism, magnification of casteism and enhancement of political corruption. It also witnessed mass defections. So much so that the Janata government was overnight converted into a Congress (I) government after the 1980 parliamentary elections.

            Later on, after the 1982 Haryana Assembly elections the strength of the Congress (I) was raised to 63 from 36 through defections. The post-1987 era may be described as the period of politics of populism and the emergence of family-based parties. This era also saw the rise of criminalisation and commercialisation of politics.

            The first half of the first decade of the 21st century was a witness to the conversion of the state government into a political machine run in a crude manner by the then ruling family of Haryana.

            Afterwards too, family rule has persisted in the state in a sophisticated manner but to a limited extent. And, the bureaucracy never had it that good as at present. This leads us to the question: How should one explain the paradox between economic development and political decay.

            This has to be, in the first instance, ascribed to the continuation of social backwardness inherited by Haryana owing to historical reasons such as the relative weakness of the national movement, absence of cities, absence of a language and script of its own, absence of the princely states for promoting literature, music and theatre, absence of a press of its own and virtual non- existence of the social reform movement. Social backwardness has persisted after the formation of Haryana in 1966 on account of the failure of the successive political dispensations to give due attention to academic and cultural advancement. In fact, it has been magnified due to social regression and the emergence of a value-free and norm-less society due to the impact of consumer culture. The opportunist character of its educated middle class has also been partially responsible for it.

            Secondly, the paradox has to be understood by keeping in view the neglect of the social sector by the ruling class of the state which remained engrossed in economic development of the state, of themselves and their families.

            Moreover, the absence of a capital of its own and its operation from the Union Territory of Chandigarh also impeded its social development.

            Besides, the rural school education system has been gradually destroyed over the years. Either there are no teachers or most of them do not teach and there is large-scale copying in examinations. Even the urban schools, with a few exemptions, are providing substandard education.

            The decline in the standard of higher education has been in proportion to the mushrooming of institutions of higher learning — colleges, universities, institutes of management, technology and teachers' training.

            The health system, particularly its rural segment, remains sick despite the vertical and horizontal expansion of primary health centres, community health centres, hospitals and medical colleges in the private and public sectors.

            The status of women, in terms of female literacy, sex ratio and incidence of anaemia caused by malnutrition too remains low. Therefore, the ruling elite will have to work for social development if it is genuinely eager to check political decay and keen to put the state on the path of social development.

            The dominance of the bureaucracy over the academia and the weakness of civil society are likely to hamper these efforts. Another inhabiting factor is the reluctance of the state government to act against the khap panchayats in a tough manner due to their political usefulness.

            Lastly, it is hesitant to really empower the panchayati raj institutions through the necessary devolution of power. And it seems to be content with an increase in the honorarium of the presidents and vice- presidents of the zila parishads, chairpersons of the panchayat samitis.

            It has not even issued a gazette notification to implement the truncated document on activity mapping, which it had released with fanfire on February, 2006. And the district planning committees, constituted on December 4 2007, too have not been activated so far.

            Let us hope that it will do the needful for realising the vision of the late Rajiv Gandhi to strengthen the panchayati raj institutions so that they are able to play the needed role in social development.

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Parveen Gulia
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Cont. No.- 09256015406

CHAOTIC URBAN GROWTH IMPROVE INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL AREAS FIRST

CHAOTIC URBAN GROWTH
IMPROVE INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL AREAS FIRST
BY G.S. GREWAL (THE TRIBUNE 16 MARCH 2009)

ACCORDING to a press report, many acres of acquired land in Gurgaon remained unutilised for about 30 years. Now every inch of it has been occupied by encroachers. The government is in a fix how to get it vacated. Many of the illegal occupiers are influential persons. This is not an exceptional case. Such examples can be multiplied.

The Land Acquisition Act was enacted in 1894. It is difficult to conceive a harsher Act. It suited the British rulers. Some changes have been made, but its hardship persists.

To begin with, the Punjab Regional and Town Planning and Development Act, 1995, under which planning is done for development, was quite reasonable. There were provisions in it for people's participation at all stages of selection of site, planning and implementation of schemes of developments. People could be made partners in development and land pooling policy could be adopted.

But even The Punjab Urban Development Authority (PUDA) never acted on those provisions. As a consequence, some of the best and ambitious projects had to be given up for violation of mandatory provisions of law.

The prestigious project of Anandgarh in the neighbourhood of Chandigarh could not materialise because of this reason. The high court quashed 29 notifications issued under Section 4 of the Land Acquisition Act for the construction of a new city of Anandgarh for only the reason that the authorities did not follow all provisions of the law.

Twentynine appeals were filed each by the state of Punjab and the Development Authority separately to challenge the decision of the high court. Crores of rupees were spent on those appeals in the Supreme Court. Best advocates were arranged. Still the Supreme Court was not convinced that non-compliance of the law was justified. All appeals were dismissed.

As a consequence, the project had to be shelved. No one analysed, why? In 2006 even Punjab amended the Regional Town and Planning and Development Act, 1995. All people-oriented provisions have been deleted, but the situation remains the same.

Due to an unsympathetic attitude of the authorities, people are provoked. They fight both in courts and on the streets, obstructing and slowing down development.

The law may be harsh or soft, what matters is its implementation. Mostly, the attitude of the bureaucracy is secretive and hard. It provokes suspicion and resentment.

In Haryana and the UT there is no procedure to select sites for development, which is done arbitrarily and in haste. Many a time mistake is realised after spending crores of rupees on land acquisition. Land remains unutilised and attracts grabbers.

The Punjab Regional and Town Planning and Development Act, 1995 is almost a copy of the Maharashtra Act. Maharashtra is an industrially advanced state in the country. It has an effective urban development wing. Very few writ petitions are filed regarding acquisition. In that state the total land required for development is not acquired. Only that land is acquired which is needed for roads, drainage, hospitals or schools etc. The remaining land is developed by the local authorities or by people by forming land-pooling schemes. The process may be slow but it works with the cooperation of people and there is much less resentment.

In northern states, the authorities have no patience to plan things in advance and in detail. They know how to acquire land, eject people, take possession and then make plans for development. Neither in Punjab and Haryana nor in the UT any scheme is ever made for the resettlement of oustees.

After making roads and drainage and laying water pipes and fixing electric poles, plots are sold at a price which the lower middle and poor classes cannot buy. They remain homeless and shelterless even under new projects.

Most of the plots/flats around Zirakpur have been purchased by middlemen to make profit. To buy a three-bedroom flat in these colonies is beyond the reach of an average middle class family.

There are about 100 slums around Panchkula the UT and Mohali. If half the population of Mumbai lives in slums, then more than one-third of Chandigarh also lives in slums. The UT has tried to settle a few thousand poor people near Malloya village, but the number of slums around Chandigarh, Panchkula, Mohali has not decreased.

Now they are adopting another method. The government developing authority demarcates some area and gives a licence to builders to purchase land and make colonies. In this method farmers are happy because they get a reasonable price of their land. But flats constructed on such land are comparatively expensive for an average citizen. This procedure is better because it avoids resentment of the original owner of land. In this method the government has to see that the contractor provides facilities like sewerage, roads and water supply.

There is something drastically wrong in our planning. Planned portions of cities do look imposing and beautiful. But our planning is also creating slums, misery, diseases and crime.

It will be an admission of the failure of system if we keep believing that all growth invariably creates misery and we are helpless.

The Constitution has provided method of planning which start at the grassroots. Article 243 ZD provides for creating district planning committees comprising elected representatives of panchayats and municipalities. These planning committees are to be guided by experts.

These committees are most suited to create infrastructure at the base level. Our rural people should be able to get employment in their own surroundings. This is the only way to stop the rural exodus to the urban areas. To keep cities worthy of living, we have to improve our rural infrastructure first.

For the last 60 years Indian planning has been starting from the top. Its impact is lost by the time it reaches lower levels. The need is to reverse the process. Guidelines are provided in the Constitution. We have to reverse the whole process. Maybe it produces better results at lower costs. Just in one push, Punjab succeeded in constructing road links to each village. This one step has played a major role in the advancement of Punjab even without big industries.

Planning through district development committees is successfully working in some states. The authorities in northern states are avoiding these provisions because it requires detailed planning and hard work. We must try new ideas and should not shirk hard work, otherwise we would have no development but protests and agitations.

The writer is a Senior Advocate at the Punjab and Haryana High Court

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with regards
Parveen Gulia
M.Tech (Infrastructure Planning)
Cont. No.- 09256015406

Watershed Development Programmes

WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Parveen Gulia

1. Introduction

A watershed is a geo-hydrological unit, which drains at a common point. Rain falling on the mountain starts flowing down into small rivulets. Many of them, as they come down, join to form small streams. The small streams form bigger streams; and finally the bigger streams join to form a nullah to drain out excess water from a village. The entire area that supplies water to a stream or river, that is, the drainage basin or catchment area, is called the watershed of that particular stream or river.

A watershed is made up of its physical and hydrological natural resources as well as human resources. Management of a watershed thus entails the rational utilization of land and water resources for optimum production while causing minimum trauma to natural and human resources. Therefore, watershed management is the process of guiding and organizing land use and use of other resources in the watershed to provide desired goods and services without adversely affecting soil and water resources. Embedded in this concept is the recognition of the inter-relationships among land use, soil and water, and the linkages between uplands and downstream areas.

2. NEED FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Watershed management in the broader sense is informed by an undertaking to maintain the equilibrium between elements of the natural eco-system or vegetation, land or water on the one hand and human activities on the other hand.

Watershed degradation in the third world countries threatens the livelihood of millions of people and constrains the ability of countries to develop a healthy agricultural and natural resource base. Increasing populations of people and livestock are rapidly depleting the existing natural resource base because the soil and vegetation system cannot support the present level of use. In a sense, the carrying capacity of these lands is being exceeded. As the population continues to rise, the pressure on forests, community lands and marginal agricultural lands leads to inappropriate cultivation practices, forest removal and grazing intensities that leave a barren environment yielding unwanted sediment and damaging stream-flow to down stream communities. Watershed development provides the best environmental unit for planning a developmental programme. According to UNICEF, a transfer just 2 percent of the world’s grain output to the plates of the poor would largely eliminate under-nutrition. Yet, one third of the world’s grain is fed to livestock and poultry each day. Thus it appears that the root cause of today’s hunger is not a global imbalance between the supply of food and the number of mouths to feed, but rather the unequal distribution of food. Redistribution of food is needed as a short-term measure but for long-term solutions, the basic problem of poverty and underdevelopment are to be addressed. Watershed management has a critically important role in combating this Malthusian threat. Fortunately, both the ecological and economic rehabilitation of misused watershed slopes is complementary and the main technologies for recovery are well established. It is considered as the best unit for an integrated and holistic development. The main objectives of watershed management are to protect the natural resources such as soil, water and vegetation from degradation. Watershed management is, in the broader sense, an undertaking to maintain the equilibrium between elements of the natural ecosystem of vegetation, land or water on the one hand and man’s activities on the other hand. When all possible inputs are obtained, man still remains on centre stage in the entire watershed system. The key issue is how far the people can be motivated, involved and organized to drive the movement. No significant improvement can be expected without the people being brought to centre stage.

The focus of watershed development:

•           Village common lands as well as private lands

•           Institutionalized community participation

•           Sustainable rural livelihood support system

•           Capacity building

•           Decentralized planning and decision-making

•           Ridge to valley treatment approach

•           Integrated and holistic development of the unit

•           Protecting natural resources through stakeholders' participation

•           Provides best unit for planning a development programme

3. WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

3.1 NATIONAL WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

The Department of Land Resources in the Ministry of Rural Development is administering three area-based watershed programmes for development of wastelands/degraded lands namely Drought Prone Areas Programmes (DPAP), Desert Development Programme (DDP) and Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP) to check the diminishing productivity of wasteland and loss of natural resources.

The DPAP was launched in 1973-74 to tackle the special problems faced by those areas that are constantly afflicted by drought conditions. Presently, 972 blocks of 195 districts in 16 States are covered under the Programme. DDP was launched in 1977-78 to mitigate the adverse effects of desertification. Presently, 235 blocks of 40 districts in 7 States are covered under the Programme. IWDP has been under implementation since 1989-90. The projects under the IWDP are generally sanctioned in areas that are not covered under DDP or DPAP.

Since 1 April 1995, these three programmes are being implemented on the basis of Common Guidelines for Watershed Development. Details of projects sanctioned and funds released from 1995-96 to 2007-2008 are as under:

Details of projects sanctioned and funds released from 1995-96 to 2007-2008              

Name of Scheme	No. of project sanctioned	Area covered (in lakh ha.)	Total funds released by Centre (Rs. in crores)
DPAP	27439	130.20	2837.81
DDP	15746	78.73	2103.23
IWDP	1877	107.0	2797.56
Grand Total	45062	322.93	7738.60

The projects under DPAP and DDP are sanctioned for 500 ha. each while the IWDP projects cover an area of 5000-6000 ha. The cost norms for all the three schemes have been revised to Rs. 6000 per ha. Under DPAP and DDP, it is shared between the Centre and the States in ratio of 75:25.

In case of IWDP, the cost sharing between the Centre and State Governments is in the ratio of 11:1. Funds are released in seven installments, six installments at the rate of 15 per cent and the last installment at the rate of 10 per cent. The first installment is released along with the initial sanction-order and subsequent installments on receipt of utilization for 50 per cent of the available funds as well as the following documents:

·         Quarterly Progress Reports

·         Utilisation Certificates

·         The Audited Statement of Accounts for the previous years and

·         Evidence of satisfactory completion of institutional arrangements

Projects are implemented by District Rural Development Agencies/Zilla Parishads (DRDAs/ZPs) through Project Implementing Agencies (PIAs). PIAs could be a Line Department (of the State Government), Panchayati Raj Institutions or a reputed NGO. One PIA normally handles 10-12 watershed projects covering an area of about 5000-6000 hectares. The PIA is required to maintain a technical team of 4 experts called Watershed Development Team (WDT) and individual projects (500 hectares) are planned and executed by the local people living in the watershed area called the Watershed Association (WA) through an elected body called Watershed Committee (WC).

The Department of Land Resources has brought out a new initiative called Hariyali with an objective of empowering PRIs both financially and administratively in implementation of Watershed Development Programmes. Under this initiative, all ongoing area development programmes namely, Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP), Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programme (DDP) are to be implemented through the PRIs. New projects under the aforesaid area development programmes are being implemented in accordance with the guidelines for Hariyali from 1 April 2003. Projects sanctioned prior to this date shall continue to be implemented as per the Watershed Development Guidelines of 2001.

In the new arrangement, Gram Panchayats shall implement projects under overall supervision and guidance of Project Implementation Agencies (PIAs). An intermediate panchayat may be the PIA for all the projects sanctioned to a particular Block/Taluka. In case, these Panchayats are not adequately empowered, then the Zilla Panchayat can either act as PIA itself or may appoint a suitable Line Department like Agriculture, Forestry /Social Forestry, Soil Conservation, etc., or an Agency of the State Government/ University/Institute as PIA. Failing these options, the ZP/DRDA may consider appointing a reputed Non-Government Organization (NGO) in the district with adequate experience and expertise in the implementation of watershed projects or related area development works as the PIA after thoroughly examining their credentials.

The Project Implementing Agency (PIA) will provide necessary technical guidance to the Gram Panchayat for preparation of development plans for the watershed through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise, undertake community organisation and training for the village communities, supervise watershed development activities, inspect and authenticate project accounts.

4. Watershed Development Programme in India

Conservation of water and checking soil erosion is central to the attainment of economic as well as financial sustainability of dry land and agriculture. Integrated watershed development programme is the major policy instrument for achieving this goal. The importance of watershed development as a strategy of agricultural and overall rural development in rainfed areas has been recognized in India for the past several decades. It dates back to the establishment of four dry farming research stations at Rohtak, Sholapur, Hyderabad and Bellary in early 30's. Watershed Development Programmes which has been increasingly emphasized for dryland plain region in India is a manifestation of the shifting priorities in agricultural sector which till recently had concentrated mainly on crops and regions with assured irrigation. Some of the points of development to be kept in mind are:

·         Growth of yield among irrigated crops and regions attained during the initial phase of the green revolution has come to some kind of a halt. Hence the future growth of agricultural production will have to increasingly come from dryland region at least till another flux of large-scale investment in irrigation takes place.

·         Frequent failure of rainfall especially since 1980's has resulted into highly fluctuating productivity in dry land region making at difficult to sustain the population on farming system alone.

·         The immediate solution of tapping groundwater has also reached alarming levels of depletion in many parts of the dry land region.

·         With increasing human and livestock population with the uncertain crop yield has reduced availability of the common property resources (CPRs) and the biomass.

Importance has been given to dry farming in India, esp. since the mid 1980 in order to combat the limited natural sources of water and to protect the land from degradation, conserve rainwater and improve the general economic condition of dry land farmers. In India, watershed development programme is taken up under various programmes launched by the Government of India. The Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programme (DDP), adopted watershed approach in 1987. The Integrated Watershed Development Board, National Watershed Programme in Rainfed Areas (NWPRA) under Ministry of Agriculture and Integrated Wastelands Development Programme in 1996 under Ministry of Rural Development and Employment. At present, on-going 4 Central schemes IWDP,DPAP,DDP and NWDPRA have been merged into a new scheme called Bhoomi Vikas Yojana under a common guideline (Guideline for Watershed Development, 1995 and revised in 2001) which envisages bottom-up approach. The main aim is to manage the land and water resources for sustained production. The watershed Development Programmes like DDP, Drought-Prone-Area- Programme (DPAP) and Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP) are implemented by the Zilla Panchayats through Watershed Associations. A Project Implementing Agency can be a Government Department or NGO.

Both the Centre and State Governments have been making continuous and constant efforts to improve the living standards of rainfed farmers through planned programmes. These programmes were implemented by both Government Organisation (GOs) and Non- Government Organisations (NGOs). The focus is on giving technical support in watershed projects, mapping of project areas design and implementation guidelines for soil and water conservation structure like bunding, check dams, gully plugs, desiltation of tanks etc. The detailed planning and design for all soil and water conservation measures is done with the consultation of each subject matter specialist such as engineer, forester, agronomist, social scientist, etc, in the watershed development team. The Government of India has fixed the cost norm of watershed development, which is about Rs 6000/ha.

CASE STUDY -ANDHRA PRADESH

Andhra Pradesh is the fifth largest state of India, both in terms of area and population. The state is situated between 120 37’ and 190 54’ North Latitude and 760 46’ and 840 46’ East Longitude. The state has an area of 274.40 lakh ha. It has tropical to sub-tropical climate. The coastal area covers a length of 972 kms and therefore, it has humid and semi-humid conditions. The maximum and minimum mean temperatures are 38.950 C and 15.650 C respectively.

(i) WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT - INITIAL STAGES

In order to combat the frequent recurrence of drought in the state, Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) was introduced during the year 1975, as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with matching state share of 50:50. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP) was introduced during 1991 with 100% central assistance. The wasteland development programmes taken up before April 1995 had not performed well, mainly because they had been planned and implemented on departmental basis by government officials and in isolated patches, without any regard for the complete micro-watershed principle or with people’s participation. The programmes of dry land development in Andhra Pradesh have undergone a major change from 1995-96 with the introduction of new watershed guidelines, based on the recommendations of Dr. Hanumantha Rao’s Committee Report. The main principle adopted in the guidelines lays special emphasis on the active mobilization and participation of the stakeholders in the programme including planning, implementation and subsequent management.

(ii) WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT–A GREAT OPPORTUNITY

A great opportunity exists for improving productivity, profitability and sustainability of dry farming areas through social mobilization. Rain fed agriculture to become productive, should be based on watershed as the unit of development. Watershed is not a technology but a concept which integrates conservation, management and budgeting of rain water through simple but discreet hydrological units. Simultaneously, a watershed supports a holistic framework which means the combined application of technologies on soil and water conservation with improved crop varieties, farming systems and agronomic management, taking into account both arable and nonfarm land, water resource development, management, harvesting and equity in sharing form the nucleus of watershed development. With assured availability of water, farmers are motivated to accept more profitable, sustainable and innovative farming systems. Water availability has also catalyzed adoption and spread of value-added activities in the entire area of watershed such as horticulture. Cropping systems need to be tailored to suit different rainfall-cum-soil zones. Watershed development is the only solution to ensure drought proofing and to mitigate the distress caused by frequent droughts.

(iii) ACTION PLAN

A massive programme for development of all the degraded lands in Andhra Pradesh in ten year-periods was launched during 1997. The Ten Year Action Plan for development includes wastelands, degraded lands (i.e. dry lands which are being cultivated under rain-fed conditions) and degraded reserve forests. It is envisaged to develop 100 lakh hectares of degraded and wastelands (17.25 lakh ha. by forest Department , 4.55 lakh ha. by Agriculture Department and 78.20 lakh ha. by Rural Development Department ) , with an outlay of about Rs.4000 crores from 1997 to 2007 at the rate of 10 lakh hectares every year by the Department of Rural Development, Forest and Agriculture. About 54.03 lakh hectares have been covered through 12890 watersheds / projects under Rural Development department. The following are the details of the watersheds:

1. DROUGHT PRONE AREA PROGRAMME (DPAP):

Objective of the scheme: This is a centrally sponsored scheme funded by Centre and State on the ratio 50:50 basis up to IV batch i.e., 1998-99 and 75:25 basis from Vth batch i.e., 1999-2000 onwards. The period and cost of the project per each watershed was four years and Rs. 20.00 lakhs up to IV th batch. It is five years and Rs. 30.00 lakhs from V th batch onwards. It is aimed to develop the drought prone area with an objective of drought proofing by taking up of insitusoil / land moisture conservation, water harvesting structures, afforestation and Horticulture programmes on a comprehensive micro watershed under ridge to valley concept basis. So far 4242 number of watersheds have been taken up covering an area of 21.21 lakh hectares in 11 districts with 94 blocks. So far 1608 watersheds have been completed and treated an area of 8.04 lakh ha.

Strategy of implementation:

·         Developing waste lands / degraded lands on watershed basis.

·          Overall economic development of resource poor.

·          For Mitigation of drought, Employment generation and Poverty alleviation Scheme is being implemented by User groups, Self-help groups, through watershed committees under supervision of PIAs.

Sharing Pattern (CSS): 50:50 up to IV th batch, 75:25 from Vth batch onwards.

2. DESERT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (DDP)

Objective of the scheme: This is a centrally sponsored scheme funded by Centre and State on the ratio 75:25 basis. It is aimed to develop the drought prone area with an objective of drought proofing by taking up of soil land moisture conservation, water harvesting structures, afforestation and Horticulture programmes on a comprehensive micro watershed under ridge to valley concept. So far 1054 watersheds were taken up covering an area of 5.27 lakh hectares in Anantapur district in all 16 blocks. So far 206 watersheds have been completed, treated an area of 1.03 lakh ha.

Strategy of implementation:

·          Developing waste lands / degraded lands on watershed basis.

·          Overall economic development of resource poor.

·          For Mitigation of drought. Employment generation and poverty alleviation.

 The period and cost of the project for each Watershed was four years and Rs.22.50 lakhs respectively up to V th batch. It is five years and Rs. 30.00 lakhs from VI th batch on wards.

3. INTEGRATED WASTE LAND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (IWDP)

Objective of the scheme: Rapid depletion of green cover and vast stretches of marginal lands lying fallow, found to be causing enormous ecological imbalance. Productivity is also negligent on account of soil erosion and marginalization of lands. To arrest this, massive integrated wasteland development project was under taken during 1991 with 100% central assistance. The programme of dry land development in Andhra Pradesh. underwent a major change from 1995-96 with the introduction of new watershed guidelines prepared by Sri Ch.Hanumantha Rao. The Scheme is being implemented in 19 districts in A.P. in non- DPAP blocks of DPAP districts and in all non-DPAP districts, with 1638 (114 Projects) Watersheds covering an area of 8.02 Lakh hect. The objective of the projects is to enable “Government of AP for checking of land degradation, sustainable and increased productivity of land based on watershed concept”.

Strategy of implementation:

·         Overall economic development of poor farmers, employment generation and poverty alleviation being implemented by user groups /self help groups and through watershed committees/GPs.

·         Area treated with soil and moisture conservation works and rain water harvesting structures from ridge to valley concept..

·         Afforestation of degraded forest and non-forest waste lands.

·         The works are executed by user groups under the supervision of watershed committee.

Sharing Pattern if any (EAP/CSS): Before March 2000 -> 100% share by GOI. After March 2000 -> 11:1 (GOI: GOAP)

4. INDIRA PRABHA (Comprehensive Land Development Project)

Objective of the scheme: The main objective of the scheme is to provide an Integrated and Comprehensive Livelihood options centered on Development of compact blocks of assigned lands owned by the poor to ensure these lands become productive assets for the poor. Government have sanctioned 1725 projects blocks under RIDF-IX, X and XIII Projects with financial outlay of Rs.599.00 crores in 22 districts to develop 5.51 lakh acres of assigned land belonging to 3.67 lakh families of SC,ST,BC and others. It is proposed to complete the project in 3 years of administrative sanction.

5. APWALTA:

In view of the increasing drilling of bore wells, Ground Water is fast depleting. Added to it, unscientific and reckless drilling has resulted in failure of bores leading to farmers incurring heavy losses. Keeping this in view, in the year 2004, Government of A.P ;has suitably amended the APWALTA Act and consequently through GOMs No. 339, PR &Rd Dept. Dt. 6.11.2004, comprehensive Rules-2004 are brought out for effective implementation. The most important are the introduction of single-window system for speedy clearance of the applications for new bore wells and insuring all new well to assist the farmers wherever bore wells fail.

a) Single-Window System: The farmers apply to village secretary or MRO. The MRO takes feasibility of electricity from the APTRANSCO and feasibility of water from the Ground Water Department. When both are feasible, the MRO gives permission for sinking of new well.

b) Failed Bore well Compensation Scheme: Under this, if any agricultural bore-well drilled by farmer, after securing permission from MRO fails compensation up to Rs. 10,000/- will be paid by the government. This comes into effect from September 2006.

In the new Rules, Penal provision for violation of the provisions of APWALTA has been made stringent and fine not less than Rs. 1,00,000/- is incorporated to deter law breakers.

REFERENCES

·         http://india.gov.in/sectors/agriculture/watershed_development.php (15-09-09)

·         Source: National Portal Content Management Team, Reviewed on: 31-03-2009

·         india.gov.in/sectors/agriculture/watershed_development.php – (15-09-09)

·         G.G. Sohani, B. K. Kakade et.al.; Conjunctive Use of water resources in Deccan Trap (India)

·         B.K. Kakade; Soil and Water Conservation Structures in Watershed Development Programme

·         B.K. Kakade, G.S. Neelam, K.J.Petare; Revival of Rivulets through Fram Pond Based Watershed Development

·         B.K. Kakade, H.S. Kulkarni K.J.Petare; G.S. Neelam, A Marathe .Integrated Drinking water Management, Impact ofWatershed Development in different Geohydrological and Socio-economic situations.

·         B.K. Kakade, N.G. Hegde; .Integrated Watershed Development: BAIF Approach. A paper in .Integrated Rural Development for Sustainable Livelihood..

·         S. Kanse, K.J. Petare B.K. Kakade and G.S. Neelam .Watershed Management using GIS based Land Information System . Adihalli .MylanhalliWatershed.